0.Leadership VS Management:

Leaders manage & managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous
📌Bernard Bass

1.Leader-Centric Perspective:

Trait Theory of Leadership

-> FOCUS: on personal qualities & characteristics of leaders.

LEADERSHIP TRAITS: is a physical or personality characteristic that can be used to differentiate leaders from follower.

Leaders were born with some inborn abilities to lead
Some characteristics:

Intelligence Dominance Self-Confidence

Level of Energy Task-Relevant Knowledge

Leadership Traits of Kirckpatrick & Locke

DRIVE: achievement, ambitions energy, tenacity & initiative LEADERSHIP MOTIVATION: personalised vs socialised PARTECIPATION: activity, sociability, cooperation, adaptability, humor HONESTY: integrity SELF-CONFIDENCE: including emotional stability

PERSONAL ABILITIES: intelligence, vitality, verbal agility, originality, critical abilities EXPERTISE: knowledge of the business or the situation PROVEN ACHIEVEMENT: academic, general culture, athletic STATUS: social, popularity

Organization in the Big 5 Dimensions of Personality by Hogan

SURGENCY: sociable, gregarious, assertive and leader-like vs quiet, reserved,

mannerly and withdraw

EMOTIONAL STABILITY: calm, steady, cool & self-confident vs anxious, insecure,

worried and emotional

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS: hard working, persevering, organised & responsible vs impulsive,

irresponsible, undependable and lazy

AGREEABLENESS: sympathetic, cooperative, good-natured, warn vs grumpy, unpleased, disagreeable, cold
INTELLIGENCE: imaginative, cultered, board-minded, curious vs concrete minded, practical and with narrow interest.

-> PROBLEMS:

✔ Traits are good in predicting the emergence of leaders but…

❌ may fail in distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.

Behavioral Theories:

-> It’s possible to train people as leader.

Ohio State Studies – leadership styles (Nature vs Nurtue):

-> Through practice, learning, dedication and motivation it is possibile to overcome nature.

INITIATING STRUCTURE: extent which a leader is likely to define & structure its role and those of its employees in the search for goal attainment
CONSIDERATOIN: extent to which a person’s job relationship are characterised by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings.

Fleishman – leadership styles:

-> Leaders are more related to behaviour than traits?

-> There are two DIMENSIONS:

Clear Vision
Irony
Individual consideration for a specific team member

-> Creating a confidence in each specific team member, Concern, promoting collaboration, interaction, creating a supportive social planner

-> RESULTS:

Traits and display consideratoin& structuring behaviours do appear to be more effective;
Traits & behaviours do not guarantee success: context matters.

2.Interactional Perspective:

Contingency Theory

-> In leadership success a kay factor is individual’s leadership style.

Fleder Model on Leadership:

-> Relationship: there are some type: position power, task structure, leader-member relations.

In this model leadership style is fixed & should be contingent to the specific situations.

Managerial Grid of Black and Mouton:

-> Leadership style is fixed and contingent to the specific situations.

-> Leaders can combine task & supportive behaviors.

💛: employee is dealing with personal problems

💙: easy to put in place in short-term projects that are carried out by experienced employees

💚: when there is pressure of time (such as meeting deadlines), it is a good way to encourage the employees

💜: when unpopular measures are taken (like cutbacks or reorganizations)

🧡: If adopted consciously, it can allow employees to grow and gain autonomy and maturity

“Leadership, as a phenomenon, has nothing to do with the exceptional qualities of gifted individuals, but rather with the gullibility of their followers “

📌Jeffrey Pfeffer

The Role of The Follower:

-> There are no leaders without followers (and vice versa)

-> Followers vary in terms of the extent to which they commit, comply, and resist a leader’s influence attempts

-> CHAR:

Understand the leader
Understand him/herself
Understand the gap and “accommodate” the leader T

Attribution Theory:

-> DEF: theory that has shown that people tend to simplify reality when they make causal inferences

People have a tendency to analyze the world and make causal inferences, which seem to trigger effects around them

-> PROBLEM: Reality is complex, and people have limited cognitive abilities

Needs to semplify the world -> looking for salient objects, circumstances or people in their environment
Person or object is salient when stands out in contrast to the background

-> Research on attribution theory has shown that people mistakenly tend to attribute more causal power to salient objects

Situational Leadership:

-> RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR: extent to which a leader engages in two-way (multiway) communication, listenting, facilitating, behaviors and socio-emotional support

Giving support
Communicating
Facilitating interactions
Active listening
Providing feedback

-> TASK BEHAVIOR: extent to which leader engages in defining roles – that is, telling what, how, when, where & if more than one person, who is to do what in:

Goal setting
Organizing
Establishing timelines
Directing
Controlling

-> Four leadership styles that good leader are capable to combine.

Transactional & Transformational Leadership:

-> DEF: involves motivating and directing followers primarily through appealing to their own self-interest.

Reward or punishment.
Leaders inspire followers through their words/ ideas/ behaviours

“The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of knowledge, but rather in a lack of will”

📌Vincent Lombardi

-> Vincen used passive + acitve management by exception

Motivation: they can do staff Explaining why it is important Challenging follower and their perception

Offering an appealing future vision Developing a collective identity Extra effort to go beyond limits to reach the result

Comparison:

📌Dark side of transformational leadership:

Narcissistics are higher in some behaviours associated to transformationals
Some are successful in convincing followers to purse disastrous visions

Full-Range Model: from laissez-faire to transformational leader

Leader-Centric Perspective: Leadership flows due the characteristics of the leader

Follower-Centric Perspective: Leadership is attributed to the leaders by the folowers

Interactional Perspecctive: leadership is a process, the result of an interaction.

3.Follower-Centric Perspective:

-> Leadership has more to do with leaders’ followers than leaders.

Attribution theory of Leadership (Pfeffer)

People tend to simplify reality when they make causal inferences Reality is increasingly complex People have only limited cognitive capabilities One way of simplifying reality is to look for salient objects, circumstances or people in their environment A person or object is salient when she stands out in contrast to the background

People mistakenly tend to attribute more causal power to salient object Leaders are highly visible, and followers attribute special power to them Leadership is a mystification, which is caused by followers Leadership actions are symbolic rather than real

-> Effective leaders are those who successfully

Associate themselves with positive organisational outcomes: pretending they caused them more than they actually did
Divest themselves from negative outcomes: blaming them on the system or someone else

-> Pfiffer’s assertions have been found to be exaggerated

-> Take-away: leadership concerns both real & symbolic actions.

4.Leadership in Modern Organizations:

-> Changing in organisations traits:

Traditional	Organisations	Modern
Order giver, privileged elite, manipulator, controller	Primary role	Facilitator, team member, advocate, sponsor, coach
Periodic learning, narrow specialist	Learning and knowledge	Continuous learning, generalist with multiple specialties
Time, effort, rank	Compensation criteria	Skills, results
Monocultural, monolingual	Cultural orientation	Multicultural, multilingual
Formal authority	Primary source of influence	Knowledge (technical and interpersonal)
Potential problem	View of people	Primary resource, human capital
Vertical	Primary communication pattern	Multidirectional
Limiter input for individual decisions	Decision-making style	Broad-based input for joint decisions
Afterthought	Ethical considerations	Forethought
Competitive (win-lose)	Nature of interpersonal relationships	Cooperative (win-win)
Hoard and restrict access	Handling of power and key information	Share and broaden access for greater transparency
Resist	Approach to change	Facilitate

-> Main DRIVERS of change:

Teams are pushing aside the individual as the primary building block of organizations
Command-and-control is giving way to partecipative management and empowerment
Ego-centered leaders replaced by customer-centered leaders
Employees as internal customers.

1.Visionary Leadership:

-> DEF VISION: a vibrant, idealized, “verbal portrait” of what the [group] aspires to one day achieve.

-> VISIONARY LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS:

Potential future defined in a vision specifies directions, purpose, and the uniqueness of a venture
Organizing action around an evocative, involving, set of future goals
Vision provide a sense of identity and meaning
Common framework for action provided by a vision allows people to coordinate and integrate their activities
Vision may server as a basis for development of organizational norms and structures

2.Shared Leadership:

-> DEF: collective phenomenon that is distributed or shared among different people

-> CHAR:

Dynamic, interactive influence process People share responsibility for leading

Peer or lateral influence Upward/ downward hierarchical influence.

-> OCCOURS IN:

Self-managed teams Executive teams

Democratic organizations Groups of people working on tasks or projects requiring interdependence and creativity

-> REQUIRES:

A leader above who empowers, enables created the conditions for the team to be self managed/led
Team design, onboarding, training and development

Developing:

-> Shared leadership can be developed from two side:

INTERNAL Team Development:

EXTERNAL Coaching:

SHARED PURPOSE: team members have similar understandings of their team’s primary objectives and ensure collective goals -> Leads to feelings of motivation, empowerment and commitment SOCIAL SUPPORT: team member’s effort to provide emotional and psychological strength to each other -> Leads to group maintenance, culture and shared responsibility VOICE: contructive change-oriented communication, participation in decision making and extra-role work behaviours -> Leads to mutual leadership and commitment

SUPPORTIVE COACHING BEHAVIOURS: interaction with a team to help the members make coordinated and task-appropriate use of their collective resources in accomplishing the team’s task. -> Leads: develops team self-management, initiative and autonomy. EUNCOURAGEMENT -> Feeling of Self-Confidence SUPPORT -> Shared Commitment SUGGESTIONS -> Clarity on task management

3.Complexity Leadership:

-> DEF: complexity means…

Dynamical Systems which do not reach equilirbium (weather)
Chaotic (but not random) processes, which seldom return to the same state (fluid dynamics)
Sensitivity to initial conditions (e.g. historical accidents, start of WWI)
Resistance to simple reductionist analyses requiring multiple scales of analysis (biology)
Complex patterns arise from the interactions among agents which follow simple rules (roundabout)
Self-organizing behaviours which evolve towards order (jazz band)

Ex: Nike

Complicated behaviours (such as execution and innovation, but not just one or the other) occur

A few rules (like priorities) exist that are not arbitrary and not compromises between extreme values
Work is required to maintain balance on the edge of chaos because it is a dissipative equilibrium.

-> There is a constant tendency to fall into the attractors of structure and chaos

Surprise exists: expect the unexpected, because control is not tight and because the system is adapting in real-time to unpredictable changes
Mistakes occur because systems at the edge of chaos often slip off the edge

Complexity Leadership Theory, CLT

-> FOCUS: enabling the learning, creative, and adaptive capacity within organisations.

Top-down paradigms:

✔ effective for an economy premised on physical production

❌ not for more knowledge-oriented economy

Complexity science => leadership as complex interactive dynamic from which adaptive outcomes (learning, innovation, adaptability) emerge

-> This conceptual framework includes three entangled leadership roles:

Administrative Leadership:

-> DEF: Actions of individuals and groups in formal managerial roles who plan and coordinate activities to accomplish organizationally-prescribed outcomes in an efficient and effective manner

From top management
Top-down functions based on authority & position

-> ACTIONS: structures tasks, engages in planning, builds vision, allocates resources to achieve goals, manages crises and conflicts, and manages organizational strategy

-> FOCUS: alignement control & is represented by the hierarchical and bureaucratic functions of the organization.

Adaptive Leadership:

-> DEF: Informal emergent dynamic that occurs among interacting people and is not an act of authority

Can occur in a boardroom or in workgroups of line workers
Agile or self-organizing work teams
Dynamic process rather than person

-> ACTIONS: Adaptive, creative, and learning actions that emerge from the interactions within the organization as it strive to adjust to tension

-> FOCUS: reformulation and self-organization

Enabling Leadership:

-> DEF: Catalyse the conditions in which adaptive leadership can thrive

From middle management role to enable adaptivity
Innovation-to-organization interface
Overlaps with administrative leadership.

-> ACTIONS: Manage the entanglement between the bureaucratic (administrative leadership) & emergent (adaptive leadership) functions of the organization:

creating appropriate organizational conditions to foster effective adaptive leadership in places where innovation and adaptability are needed
facilitating the flow of knowledge and creativity from adaptive structures into administrative structures

-> FOCUS: interactions, interdependence and tension

>Fostering Interaction:

-> Interaction produces network of linkages across which information flows and connects

Can foster interaction through such strategies as open architecture workplaces, self-selected work groups, electronic work groups & by management–induced scheduling or rules structuring.

>Fostering Interdependence:

-> Interdependency’s protency derives from naturally occurring of conflicting constraints.

CONFLICTING CONSTRAINTS: when the well-being of one agent is inversely dependent on the well-being of another, or when the information broadcasted by one agent is incompatible with that broadcasted by another agent.

-> Enabling leaders can foster interdependence through autonomy.

A. permits conflicting constraints to emerge & enables agents to work through those constraints without interference from formal authorities.

>Injectiong Tensions:

-> Tension creates an imperative to act.

Can be enhanced by heterogeneity

-> Enabling leadership promotes heterogeneity by building an atmosphere in which such diversity is respected, with considered hiring practices & by structuring work groups to enable interaction of diverse ideas.

-> E.l. also fosters internal tension by enabling an atmosphere that tolerates dissent & divergent perspectives on problems, one in which personnel are charged with resolving theri differences & finding solutions to their problems

Using CLT

Simple Rules for Complexity: produce simple rules and rely on self organizing.

-> Identify and simulate different scenario appying complexity leadership.

Modeling of the complax adaptive system
Definition of reinforcing loops (B1 & B2) on which acting
Computer-based simulation and what-if analyses
Definition of interventions for effective enabling leadership styles

Betting on huge potential digital technology to propose solution that are technologically based